Flamingos!

Addendum C. FLAMINGOS

Flamingos are birds/AVES, in the order Ciconiiformes/Phoenicopteriformes.

· Members of this order have long legs and long necks. It also includes storks, herons, and ibises.

· The classification of flamingos puzzled taxonomists for years. The skeletal structure, egg-white proteins, and behavior pattersn caused scientists to link flamingos to various groups.

o The pelvis and ribs of a flamingo are similar to those of storks.

o The composition of egg-white proteins in flamingo eggs are similar to that of the herons.

o Behavior patterns, especially those of the chicks, link them closely to geese (order Anseriformes). Flamingos also have webbed feet and waterproof plumage like geese.

o More recently, flamingos have been properly placed in this order.

o Flamingos are the only members of the family Phoenicopteridae. Distinguishing characteristics include long legs, a long, curved neck, and a gooselike voice.

o There are 5 species of flamingos, divided into 3 genera.

ü Phoenicopterus ruber is divided into 2 distinct and geographically separated subspecies: P.r.ruber (the Caribbean flamingo, slightly smaller); and P.r. roseus (the greater flamingo is the largest of the flamingos and have deep pink wings).

ü P. chilensis, the Chilean flamingo, are slightly smaller than the Caribbean flamingos and have gray legs with pink bands at the joints.

ü P. minor, the lesser flamingo, is the smallest of the flamingos but the color is brighter than the greater flamingo.

ü P. jamesi, the James’ flamingo, is characterized by having all black flight feathers, including the secondary flight feathers (which are red in all other species).

ü P. andinus, the Andean flamingo, is the only species of flamingo that has yellow legs and feet. It also has a red spot between the nostrils.

o Fossil record: evidence indicates that the group from which flamingos evolved is very old and existed about 30 million years ago, before many avian orders had evolved. The discovery and study of a fossil in 1976 suggested that flamingos arose from ancient shorebirds. Fossilized flamingo footprints, estimated to be about 7 million years old, have been found in the Andes Mountains.

Distribution:

v All flamingos are found in tropical and subtropical areas.

v Populations of Chilean flamingos are found in central Peru, both coasts of S. America (mainly in the winter), Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, and southern Brazil. Stragglers have been reported on the Falkland Islands and Equador.

v The lesser flamingo is primarily an African species. Populations are found in eastern, SW, and western Africa. In addition, a sizable population nests in India. Stragglers can be found as far north as southern Spain.

v The James’ flamingo has the most restricted range of all flamingo species. They are found in southern Peru, north-central Chile, western Bolivia, and NW Argentina.

v Andean flamingos are found in southern Peru, nort-central Chile, western Bolivia, and NW Argentian.

v The Caribbean flamingo is found throughout the Caribbean (Cuba, the Bahamas, the Yucatan, Turks and Caicos), the Galapagos Islands, and the northern part of coastal South America.

v The greater flamingo has the most widespread distribution of all flamingos. Populations are found in NW India, the Middle East, the western Mediterranean, and Africa. Limited numbers of this species can be found over much of northern Europe and eastward to Siberia.

Habitat:

v The flamingos’ most characteristic habitats are large alkaline or saline lakes or estuarine lagoons that usually lack vegetation. Lakes may be far inland or near the sea.

v A variety of habitats are used by flamingos: mangrove swamps; tidal flats; and sandy islands in the intertidal zone.

v The presence/absence of fish may have a great influence on the use of lakes by some flamingos.

The Chilean flamingo is scarce or absent in lakes with fish. It is present, usually in large numbers, where there are no fish with which to compete for food.

The introduction of fish to some lakes may seriously affect the distribution of the Chilean flamingo as well as the greater and Caribbean flamingos, since they all feed primarily on invertebrates. Other flamingo species are not affected because of different food sources.

Migration:

Ø Flamingos are generally non-migratory birds. However, due to changes in the climate and water levels in their breeding areas, flamingo colonies are not always permanent.

o Populations that breed in high altitude lakes, which may freeze over in the winter, move to warmer areas.

o When water levels rise, birds may search for more favorable sites.

o Drought conditions may force some flamingo populations to relocate.

o Most flamingos that migrate will return to their native colony to breed. However, some may join a neighboring colony.

o When flamingos migrate, the do so mainly at night. They prefer to fly with a cloudless sky and favorable tailwinds. The can travel approximately 375 miles in one night at about 35 mph. When traveling during the day, the flamingos fly at high altitudes, possibly to avoid predation by eagles.

Ø The movements of the greater flamingo population living in Carmarque in southern France have been closely monitored since 1977. Most that leave the colony go either SW to winter in Spain, or SE to winter in Tunisia and Turkey. The % of birds that travel east or west seems to depend on the direction of the prevailing winds in the birds’ first autumn.

Population:

ü The lesser flamingo is the most numerous of all flamingo species, with an estimated population of 1.5-2.5 million birds.

ü The second most numerous is the greater flamingo. Exact numbers of these birds are difficult to assess because of their extensive range and migration patterns.

ü The Chilean flamingo is the most numerous of the South American flamingos. Estimated total pop. is not more than 200,000 individuals, and the pop. is in a decline.

ü The James’ flamingo has and estimated pop. of 64,000 birds.

ü Estimated pop. of the Andean flamingo is 33,927 with a decreasing trend.

ü In 1956, the Caribbean flamingo numbers were estimated at only 21,500. Since then, the pop. has increased to a current estimate of 850,000-880,000 birds and the trend is stable.

Physical characteristics:

Size:

· The greater flamingo is the tallest, standing 47-59 inches and weighing up to 7.7 pounds.

· The lesser is the smallest, standing 31.5 inches and weighing only 5.5 pounds.

· The Caribbean flamingo is 31-57 inches, with weights of 4.2-6.6 pounds, thus only slightly smaller than the greater flamingo.

· Males reach full size between 1 ½ and 2 years of age.

· Male flamingos are slightly larger than females, weighing more and having longer wingspans; however, visual sex determination of flamingos is unreliable.

· The wingspan of flamingos ranges from 37-39 inches for the lesser to 55-65 inches for the greater. The Caribbean has a wingspan of 59 inches.

Color:

· Feather color varies with the species, from pale pink to crimson or vermilion. Caribbean flamingos have the brightest coloration, either crimson or vermilion. The Chilean flamingo is a pale pink.

· Feather coloration is derived from carotenoid pigments found in the flamingo’s diet.

· Male and female coloration is identical.

· Newly-hatched chicks are gray or white.

· Juveniles are grayish, taking approximately 1-2 years to obtain full adult coloration.

· Parents may lose some of their pink coloration while raising young.

· Coloration of a flamingo’s legs and feet varies according to species: from yello to orange or pink-red. The Andean flamingo is the only species that has yellow legs and feet.

Appendages:

· Legs: the legs of adult flamingos are longer than their bodies, measuring between 31.5-49 inches, depending on the species. The ankle is located halfway up the leg. The knee is close to the body and is not externally visible.

· Feet: The Chilean, greater, and lesser flamingos have 3 forward-pointing toes and a hallux, or hind toe. Andean and James’ flamingos have 3 toes and no hallux. Webbing between the toes aids the birds in swimming and stirring up food. Coloration of the feet and legs are the same.

· Wings: the wingspan of flamingos ranges from 37-39 inches on the lesser to 55-65 inches on the greater flamingo. The Caribbean flamingo has a wingspan of 59 inches. There are 12 principal flight feathers located on each wing. These black feathers re visible when the wings are extended.

· Neck: the neck is long and straight. A flamingo has 19 elongated neck/cervical vertebrae, allowing for maximum movement and twisting (compare to most other vertebrates with 7 cervical vertebrae, even the giraffe).

Head:

Ø Eyes: the eyes are located on either side of the head. Flamingo chicks have gray eyes for approximately the first year of life. Adults have yellow eyes.

Ø Bill:

o An adult’s bill is black, pinkish, or cream-colored. Coloration varies with species.

o The bill is adapted for filter feeding. The upper and lower bill, or mandible, is angled downward just before the nostril.

§ The upper mandible is thin and flat, and functions like a lid to the lower mandible. The lower mandible is large and trough or keel shaped.

§ Tooth like ridges on the outside of a flamingo’s bill help filter food from the water.

§ Both the upper and lower mandibles contain 2 rows of a bristled, comb like or hair like structure called lamellae. When the mandibles come together, the lamellae of the upper and lower mandible mesh.

§ The number of lamellae varies according to species. The Andean flamingo has about 9 lamellae per cm.; the James’ about 21 per cm; the Chilean about 5-6 per cm.

§ James and Andean flamingos have deep, narrow, trough like lower mandibles, which allow them to eat small foods such as algae and diatoms.

§ The lower mandible of the Caribbean, greater, and Chilean flamingos is wide, allowing them to feed on larger foods such as brineflies, shrimp, and mollusks.

o Tongue: a flamingo’s tongue is large and fleshy, covered with bristle like projections that help filter water and food particles through the lamellae.

Feathers:

v Adult feathers have a small, delicate, accessory feather arising from the main feather at the point where the quill merges into the shaft of the feather. This is called an aftershaft.

v There are 12 principal flight feathers located on each wing. These black feathers are visible when the wings are extended.

v Flamingos have 12-16 tail feathers.

v Contour feathers cover all of the body except the bill and scaled parts of the feet and legs. They protect the skin from damage and help streamline the flamingo during flight.

v Flamingos molt/shed their wing and body feathers at irregular intervals ranging from 2x per year to once every 2-3 years. The molt is related to the breeding cycle.

v Molted feathers lose their color.

Senses:

Ø Hearing: flamingos have good hearing. Vocalizations are important and may be used to keep flocks together and for parent/chick recognition.

Ø Eyesight:

v Vision plays an important role in helping flamingos synchronize collective display of several hundred to several thousand birds.

v Some biologists believe that a flamingo’s night vision is poor, but better than a human’s.

v Like most birds, flamingos have well developed color vision.

v In zoological settings, flamingos recognize their uniformed keepers among visitors.

Ø Tactile: tactile organs on the tongue can be used to ensure that only food is ingested.

Ø Taste: the sense of taste is poorly developed in birds, in general.

Ø Smell: flamingos have little or no sense of smell.

Adaptations for their environment:

Ø Swimming and wading:

v Because flamingos have long legs, they can wade into much deeper water than most birds. Webbed feet support them on soft mud.

v When the water is beyond their wading depth, flamingos swim at the surface while feeding. Webbed feet allow the flamingo to swim quite readily.

v There is no evidence that flamingos dive.

v Flamingos are often seen in dense packs floating on the surface of the water.

Ø Respiration: like other birds, flamingos breathe air with lungs. They hold their breath while feeding under water.

Ø Sleep: when flamingos are nesting, they may sit down with their legs tucked beneath them or rest standing on one leg. While resting, flamingos face into the wind. This stops wind and rain from penetrating their feathers. When resting on one leg, flamingos can be seen swaying back and forth in the wind.

Ø Thermoregulation: flamingos frequently stand on one leg. Curling a leg under the body keeps the foot warm and conserves body heat. Flamingos stand on one leg in both cool and warm environments.

Ø Flight:

v To take off, a flamingo runs several steps, begins flapping its wings, and lifts off into the air. When landing, the procedure is reversed: the bird touches down and then runs several paes.

v A flamingo flies with its head and neck stretched out in front and its legs trailing behind.

v Flight speed of a flock of flamingos can reach 31-37 mph.

v Flamingos have been known to fly 311-373 miles each night between habitats.

Ø Adaptations for a high salinity environment: the majority of lakes where flamingos live have extremely high salt concentrations. The only source of fresh water for some of these birds comes from boiling geysers. Flamingos are capable of drinking water at temperatures that approach the boiling point. Flamingos excrete salt through salt glands in the nostrils.

Behavior:

Ø Social structure: flamingos are very social birds. Breeding colonies of a few individual flamingos are rare, while colonies of tens of thousands of birds are common.

Ø Social behavior:

v Flamingos devote considerable time to collective displays before, during, and after breeding.

v Several hundred to several thousand flamingos are all involved simultaneously with ritualized postures and movements to synchronize breeding.

v Sometimes only one display is performed, but, more often, a predictable sequence of displays are carried out. Not all flamingo species perform all of the described displays, and some perform the displays slightly different than described. Flamingo displays include the following:

ü “Head flag” involves stretching the neck and head up as high as possible, with the bill pointing upwards, and then rhythmically turning the head from one side to another.

ü “Wing salute” is performed by spreading the wings for a few seconds, showing their striking contrasted colors, while the tail is cocked and neck outstretched.

ü In the “inverted wing salute,” the flamingo angles its head down, cocks its tail, and orients its body so that the tail is higher than the chest. The wings are then held partially open above the back with the black flight feathers pointing up and the bend in the wing pointing down.

ü “Twist preen” entails the bird twisting its neck back and appearing to preen quickly, with its bill behind a partially open wing.

ü “Wing leg stretch” involves the leg and wing on the same side stretched out and to the rear.

ü “Marching” is performed by a large group of flamingos that cluster together, stand erect, and then move in quick, synchronized steps in first one direction and then another.

Ø Individual behavior:

v Flamingos spend most of the day feeding, preening (distributing oil from a gland at the base of their tail to their feathers for waterproofing), resting, and bathing.

v Breeding birds feed day or night. Non-breeding birds feed at night and spend the day sleeping or involved in activities such as preening or bathing.

v Flamingos spend 15-30% of their time during the day preening. This is a large % compared to other waterfowl, which preen only about 10% of the time. Flamingos preen with their bills. An oil gland near the base of the tail secretes oil that the flamingo distributes throughout its feathers.

v Flamingos swim readily and bathe in shallow fresh water, submerging the whole body.

Ø Interaction with other species: 2 or more species of flamingos can coexist in the same area at the same time.

Communication:

Ø Vocalizations:

v Flamingo vocalizations range from nasal honking to grunting or growling. Flamingos are generally very noisy birds. Variations exist in the voices of different species of flamingos.

v Vocalizations play an important part in keeping flocks together as well as in ritualized displays. Specific calls are used in conjunction with certain behaviors.

v Vocalizations are used in parent/chick recognition.

Ø Visual displays: flamingos communicate with a broad range of visual displays.

Food and Foraging:

Ø Food preferences and resources:

v Blue green and red algae, diatoms, larval and adult forms of small insects, crustaceans, mollusks, and small fishes make up the main diet of flamingos.

v A flamingo’s pink or reddish feather, leg, and facial coloration come from a diet high in alpha and beta carotenes, including canthaxanthin. The richest sources of carotenoids are found in the algae and various invertebrates that make up the bulk of a flamingo’s diet.

v The shape of a flamingo’s filtering bill determines its diet. A flamingo will have either a shallow or deep-keeled bill.

ü Lesser, James’, and Andean flamingos hae deep keeled bills and feed mainly on algae and diatoms.

ü Greater, Caribbean, and Chilean flamingos have shallow keeled bills and feed on insects, aquatic invertebrates, and small fishes. Caribbean flamingos eat larval and pupal forms of flies and brine shrimp as their main food.

v Slight differences in diet and habits prevent competition among flamingos that share feeding grounds.

Ø Food intake: lesser flamingos eat an estimated 2.1 ounces dry weight to fulfill their daily food requirements. Through slow motion photography, researchers discovered that these birds pump water through their bills 20 times a second to filter their food.

A much slower filtration rate was found in the Caribbean flamingos. Only 4-5 times a second to filter out their daily food requirements of 9.5 ounces dry weight.

Ø Methods of collecting and eating foods.

v Standing in shallow water, flamingos lower their necks and tilt their heads slightly upside down, allowing their bills to hang upside down facing backward in the water.

v Flamingos sweep their heads from side to side just below the surface of the water to collect their food if they have a deep keeled mandible. If the mandible is shallow keeled, a flamingo sweeps its head from side to side deeper into the mud to collect its food.

v A flamingo filters its food out of the water and mud with a spiny, piston like tongue that aids in sucking food filled water past the lamellae inside the curved bill. The fringed lamellae filter out food, and the water is passed back out of the bill.

v In addition to filtering food into the bill, lamellae also exclude foods that may be too large or small for the flamingo.

v Standing in water, flamingos may stamp their webbed feet to stir up food from the bottom.

Ø Flamingos are fed a varied diet in zoological environments in order to maintain their pink coloration as well as their general health. SW and BG feed flamingos a diet that includes all the nutrients needed for optimal health. The flamingos are fed in a specially designed feeding trough. Flamingo chow is a pellet with carotenoids and shrimp.

Ø Water intake: flamingos seek out fresh water for drinking.

Reproduction:

Ø Flamingos reach sexual maturity several years after hatching and usually begin to breed at about 6 years of age.

Ø Breeding seasons: flamingo colonies may breed at different times of the year. Breeding success is based on synchronous nesting of a flamingo colony so that chicks of a colony hatch around the same time in any one year. Colonies vary rarely nest more than once a year.

Ø Breeding and nest building may depend on rainfall and its effect on food supply.

Ø Courtship: groups of flamingos perform ritualized stretching and preening when courting begins. Males group together and often run with bills pointed toward the sky and necks held straight out. Birds interested in one another call to each other frequently and in unison.

Ø Pair bonding: pair bonding is very strong, and flamingos may be monogamous. However, flamingos have been observed to mate with more than one partner.

Ø Copulation:

ü A female will most often initiate copulation by walking away from the group. A male follows close behind.

ü The female stops, lowers her head, and spreads her wings. This behavior is an invitation to the mail to mount her.

ü Mating occurs in the water. The male jumps onto the female’s back from behind, firmly planting his feet on her wing joints.

ü After mating, the male stands on the female’s back, then jumps off over her head.

Ø Nesting:

ü Flamingos build nest mounds made of mud, small stones, straw, and feathers. These mounds can be as high as 12 inches.

ü Mound building begins up to 6 weeks prior to the eggs being laid.

ü Using their bills, both male and female participate in mound building by bringing mud and other objects toward their feet.

ü As they slowly construct the mound, the parents make a shallow well on the top, where the female will lay the egg.

ü Mounds serve as protection against the extreme heat and flooding that occurs at ground level.

ü Mound building continues during incubation, as the flamingos pick up materials close to the nest.

Hatching and care of young:

Ø Egg laying: flamingos most often lay one large egg. Eggs range in size from 3x1.9 inches and 4 ounces to 3.5x2.1 inches and 4.9 ounces. The egg is oblong in shape, similar to that of a chicken. The egg is usually chalky white, but may be pale blue immediately after it is laid. Females have been known to lay 2 eggs, but this is rare.

Ø Incubation: Soon after the egg is laid. Incubation period between 27-31 days. Both male and female take turns by sitting on top of the nest mound. During incubation, flamingos will stand, stretch their wings, and preen themselves frequently. A parent bird carefully lifts and turns the egg with its bill. Eggs that fall from the nesting mound are not retrieved.

Ø Hatching: takes place between 24-36 hours; the chick calls frequently as it breaks out of the shell. The chick breaks out using a growth on its bill called an “egg tooth.” The egg tooth is not a true tooth and falls off soon after the chick hatches. Flamingo parents appear anxious while their chick is hatching. They stand, look at the egg, and vocalize. The adult stands, looks down, and gently preens and nibbles at the emerging chick.

Ø Chick at hatching: newly hatched chicks have gray or white down feathers, a straight red bill, and plump, swollen red or pink legs. The leg swelling decreases approximately 48 hours after hatching, and the red bill and legs turn black in 7-10 days. After hatching, a chick is not very agile. Movement is limited to pushing its wings or lifting its head.

Ø Care of young:

ü Parents are able to recognize their own chick by sight and vocalization. They will feed no other chick.

ü A flamingo chick will leave the nest after 4-7 days, when it is strong enough to stand and walk. Parents keep a close, protective watch n their chick as it explores its habitat.

ü Chicks gather in large groups called crèches (French for “crib”). Parents are able to locate their own chicks in the crèche at feeding time.

ü Adults feed their chicks a secretion of the upper digestive tract referred to as “milk.” Milk secretion is caused by the hormone prolactin, which both the male and female produce. Milk is 8-9% protein and 15% fat, similar to mammalian milk. It is red in color due to the pigment, canthaxanthin. Chicks store this pigment in the liver, to be deposited in their adult feathers as they grow.

Ø Chick development:

ü Flamingo chicks are able to swim before they are typically old enough to leave the nest for good.

ü Young chicks have been seen imitating feeding methods while standing in shallow water.

ü Chicks begin to grow their flight feathers after 11 weeks. At the same time, the bill begins to hook, allowing the chick to feed itself.

ü Chicks lose their juvenile gray or white color gradually over a 2-3 year period, at which time, their pink feathers begin to show.

Longevity and mortality:

Ø Flamingos live up to 50 years in the wild.

Ø Predators:

ü Most flamingo predators are other species of birds.

ü The lappet faced and white headed vultures feed on eggs, young flamingos, and dead flamingos

ü The Egyptian vulture feeds mostly on flamingo eggs. This bird has also been observed dropping and destroying eggs that it does not eat.

ü The Marabou stork and tawny eagle prey on flamingo eggs and chicks.

ü The black kite, a scavenger, feeds on flamingo carcasses left behind by other birds and land animals.

ü Remote breeding grounds make it difficult for terrestrial predators to feed regularly on flamingos. Land predators will, however, enter the flamingo breeding grounds when water levels are low. These predators vary according to the species of flamingo and environment in which the flamingos live.

ü The lesser flamingo is preyed upon by lions, leopards, cheetahs, and jackals. Pythons have also been known to attack flamingos.

ü The Andean flamingo is preyed upon by the Andean fox and Geoffrey’s cat.

ü In Africa, hyenas will enter a flamingo’s environment when the ground is dry and can hold the animal’s weight. Hyenas cause more panic among the birds than actual mortalities.

ü Records indicate that bobcats, coyotes, raccoons, foxes, minks, and dogs have killed flamingos in zoological environments.

ü On Great Inagua Island in the Bahamas, feral pigs prey on flamingos.

Ø Human interaction:

ü Habitat destruction by humans has had a negative effect on the breeding and feeding grounds of flamingos.

ü Construction of roads and highways make the flamingo’s environment more accessible to people and land predators.

ü Coastal desert irrigation has altered water levels in many flamingo habitats.

ü Mining of boron, lithium, nitrates, potassium, and molybdenum has caused habitat disturbances for flamingos.

ü Low flying aircraft bringing tourists, bird enthusiasts, and photographers into flamingo nesting and feeding grounds cause disturbances and affect the birds’ lifestyle.

ü People have used flamingos and their eggs as food.

§ Historically, people have used flamingo eggs as a primary food source and delicacy. Today, in some places, flamingo eggs are removed from nests and sold at markets.

§ In early Roman times, flamingo tongues were carefully prepared, pickled, and served as a delicacy.’

§ Andean miners have killed flamingos for their fat, believed to be a cure for tuberculosis.

ü Greater and lesser flamingo chicks in the Magadi colony in Africa were banded in the 1960s with the hope of finding out more about these birds’ lifestyles and migration patterns. Unfortunately, only a few of the banded birds have been recovered. It is believed that the bands may have dissolved because of the high alkaline content in the water where these birds live.

ü Human activity on Great Inagua Island in the Bahamas has helped flamingo populations. Salt production has added many acres of suitable habitat, stabilized water levels, and provided additional food sources.

Conservation:

Ø Status: In 1924, the James’ flamingos were believed to be extinct. It was rediscovered in 1957 sharing the habitat of the Chilean flamingo. No species of flamingo is currently listed as “endangered” under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

Ø All or most species of flamingos are listed as in need of protection and are considered to be threatened and likely to become endangered if trade isn’t regulated by Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), by IUCN/The World Conservation Union.

Ø Caribbean, Chilean, and greater flamingos are protected under the U.S. Migratory Bird Act of 1918.

Ø Zoological parks:

ü With a population of more than 300 birds, Busch Gardens Tampa Bay has the largest flock of Caribbean flamingos of any park in the world.

ü Hialeah Park, located near Miami, Florida, is a racetrack with a flock of Caribbean flamingos numbering 500. This park has a lake with 4 islands. The flamingos nest on these islands. To assist in preserving the flamingo flock at Hialeah, the Hialeah Park Flamingo Consortium was formed. The Consortium provides birds to other institutions to increase the population of captive flamingos. The consortium includes Sea World, Discovery Island, and the Los Angeles Zoo.

ü Zoological parks have had success in breeding Chilean, Caribbean, and greater flamingos. Sea World is one of the few N.A. zoological parks that have successfully bred lesser flamingos.